Origin of Name of District

The district derives its name from Etawah, which is its headquarters. It is still sometimes referred to as the city of bricks, and both tradition and the appearance of the ground suggest that the modern city was founded on an ancient khera or town site, so that it is not improbable that the existence of old bricks or old brick-kilns may have led to its present name. A curious legend relating to the founding of the city gives additional support to this hypothesis. It is said that when the Chauhan leader. Sumaer Sah came to bathe in the Yamuna river he noticed a goat and a wolf drinking water from the same point in the river. Amazed by such a curious .sight he consulted the astrologers who advised him to build a fort at the place. He took their advice and workmen were set to lay the foundations. In the course of their excavations they came upon a brick made of silver and gold, and called out 'Int aya ! Int aya ! (a brick has been found). From the workmen's cry the city took the name Intava, which in course of time was corrupted into Intawa, which finally became Etawah. According to some scholars the region from Bateshwar in district Agra to Bhareh was known as Ishtapath' and there are a large number of temples of Lord Siva who was 'Isht Dev' of the people of that region. From the word 'Isht' the town was given the name of Ishtkapuri a reference to which is found in the Bhavishya Puran. With the lapse of time Ishtkapuri changed into Etawah.

Location and Boundaries
The district of Etawah is situated in the north-west of the Allahabad Division. It is bounded on the north by the districts of Mainpuri and Farrukhabad, on the east by Kanpur and on the south partly by Jalaun and partly by district Bhind of the State of Madhya Pradesh, which also provides its western boundary to a certain distance, the remaining western boundary being formed by Agra. The river Chambal, except for a short distance separates it from Madhya Pradesh. The district lies between the parallels of 26° 21' and 27° 1' North latitude, and 78° 45' East longitude.

Area
According to the Centra] Statistical Organisation the area of the district was 4, 327 sq. km. on July 1, 1971, the district occupying 41st position in the State.

Population
In 1961 census its position on the basis of un was 36th in the State but according to the census of 1971, the district, occupied 35th position in the State in respect of population which was 14,47,702 (including 6.54,951 females). The rural areas were inhabited by 13,06,008 persons (including 5,89,813 females) and the urban by 1,41.694 persons (including 65,138 females).

At present the district is divided into four tahsils. This is the outcome of a considerable number of changes. The district as stood in 1801-02 comprised large tracts of the present districts of Agra, Mainpuri,,Mathura. Aligarh, Etah and Etawah parganas Firozabad, Sadabad, Sahpau, Khandauli, Raya, Johar, Mursan, Jalesar, Khalilganj, Mohariya, Duryapur and Sonai being placed under the collector of Etawah. In 1804 these parganas were transferred to Aligarh and. Sikandra Rao was added to them from Etawah, but in 1811 Sauj was taken away from Farrukhabad. In 1816 parganas Faizpur, Badaria Bilram, Soron and half of Marahra were, transferred to Aligarh, during the same year,large transfers were made to Agra, while the following year the district was broken up into four collectorate juridiction. The Mainpuri portion remained under the collector of etawah resident at Mainpuri. Parganas Phaphund and taluqas Bela, Sahar, Ruru, Airwa, Ramain, Takha and Kudrel were placed under a deputy collector Etawah, Delhi, Delhi-Jakhan, the first division of Lakhana, Barhpura, taluqas Sandaus, Dalpnagar and Partabner were put in the charge of another deputy collector who took up his quarters at Etawah and parganas Sakit and Kuraoli, with taluquas Eath and Rajaur in charge of a deputy collector residing first at Sirhpura and subsequently at Patiali. The subdivision of Etawah was superintended by the collector of Etawah and Sirhpura by that of Farrukhabad.

In 1837, further changes took place , the parganas of Sahawar-Karsana, Etah-Sakit and Sirhpura from the Paitali collectorate and Kuraoli, Shikohabad, Kishni-Nabiganj. Bhongaon. Alipur Patti and the Manchhana from the Mainpuri and Etawah subcollector, Mainpuri district, while the remainder of Etawash and Bela subcollectorates, with the exception of Tirwa Thatiya (transferred to Kanpur in 1815) and portions of sanrikh and Sakatpur were included in the district of Etawah , which. Thus comprised Bibamau or Delhi-Jakhan. Etawah. Ramain. Barrhpura or Janibrast, Lakhana, Auraiya, Phaphund and Bela. This anrrangement whichbwas sanctioned in 1840 , remained in force for 17 years, when the last great series of changes took place. In 1858, and Delhi-Jakhan was transferred to Mainpuri, while the rest remained in tahsil Etawah. which also received Patti-Kamet from Janibrast and portions of Ramain and Lakhana, Part of Ramain ,the Chakar Nagar and Sahson taluqas, which had been transferred to Lakhna from Janibrast, part of Lakhana and part of Airwa-Sakatpur went to make the new pargana Bharthana, Pargana Bidhuna absorbed part of Bela, portions of Airwa-Sakatpur from Farrukhabad, part of Ramain and the Sahnr and Sahayal portions of Phaphund, while Phaphund was made up of the bulk of the old pargana of the same name together with villages from Bela and Ramain. Lastly, pargana Auraiya, also called Dalelnagar, included the old mahais of Patti Nakhat, Doekali, Shaiganpur and Parihar or Sandaus, together with the Bhareh portion of Janibrast. The subsequent alteration made in this distribution was effected in 1894, when the Phaphund tahsil was broken, up its northern portion being transferred to Bidhuno and its southern portion to Auraiya. In 1957 a small area of 7.55 acres of village Kumehra from Karhal tahsil of Mainpuri district was transferred to Etawah tahsil.

The district has four subdivisions _; Etawah, Bharthana, Bidhuna and Auraiya, each forming a tahsil of the same name. Tahsil Etawah occupies the western portion, of the district. On the north lies the district of Mainpuri, on the east Bharthana tahsil and on the south the State of Madhya Pradesh, the dividing line in this direction being formed by the Chambal river. On the west the boundary is somewhat more, irregular, it marches alongside that of the Agra district, from which it is separated for two-thirds of the distance by the river Yamuna , while for the remainder there is no natural barrier According to the census of 1971 it had 362 villages and two towns covering an area of 1,151 sqr km. with a population of 4,13,356 persons (females 1,87,895).

Bharthana is the central tahsil of the district bounded on the west by Etawah tahsil, on the north by the district of Mainpuri and Farrukhabad, on the east by tahsils Bidhuna and Auraiya and on the south by the .State of Madhya Pradesh, The tahsil has an oblong shape, stretching right across the district from northern to southern extremity. According to the census of 1971 it had 311 villages and two towns covering an area 1.124 sq- km. with a population of 3,42.341 persons (females 1,54,301).

Tahsil Bidhuna forms the north-eastern tahsil of district. On the north it is bounded by Farrukhabad, on the east by Kanpur, on the west by tahsil Bharthana and on the south by tahsil Auraiya. In shape it is a rough quadrilateral, and ,according to the census of 1971, it had 433 villages and covered an area of 1,112 sq. km. with a population of 3.31,078 persons (including 1,49,117 females).

Tahsil Auraiya forms the south-eastern portion of district. It is bounded on the north by Bidhuna on the north by Bharthana, and on the east by the Kanpur district. On the south the Yamuna and the Kunwari separate it from the Jalaun district, but there is a small tract of country south of the latter stream, which has no natural boundary with the State of Madhya Pradesh According to the census of 1073 it had 449 villages and covers an area of 1.111 sq. km. with a population of 3.60,927 including 1,63,638 females).

Thanas—For the purpose of police administration there are 20 thanas (police-stations) in the district of which 6 are located in tahsil Etawah, 5 each in tahsils Bharthana and Bidhuna and 4 in tahsil Auraiya.

TOPOGRAPHY

The district lies entirely in the Gangetic plain, but its physical features vary considerably and are determined by the rivers which pass through it. It is divisible into four portions of distinct natural characteristics. The first of these consists of the country lying north-east of the Sengar river, which runs across it from went to east almost parallel to the Yamuna, and includes the northern portions of tehsils Etawah, Bharthpna and Auraiya and the whole of Birihuna. The second tract lies nontb of the river Sengar and extends as far as the high lands immediately overlooking the Yamuna. It comprises a slightly undulating stretch of country, covering portions of Etawah and Bharthana and the "bulk of the Auraiya tahsil. The third tract, includes the parts of the same tahsils that adjoins the river Yamuna. Beyond the Yamuna, stretching from the borders of tahsil Bah in Agra district to the confluence of the Sindh. Kunwari. Chambal and Yamuna rivers, lies the high and broker country formerly known as Janibrast. These tracts differ from each other in a very marked decree within a general pattern of conformity.

The northern portion of the district, which is separated from the rest by the Sengar river, is krown as pachar. It covers about 52 per cent of the total areas of the district and presents a level expanse of upland, of which the surface is only broken by occasional sandy ridges or by one or two inconsiderable streams such as the Pandu and Arind or Rind, and the latter tributaries the Ahneya nnd Puraha. The soil is for the most part a rich loam of great fertility. Interspread with large tracts of usar and frequently varied bv beds of clav. It forms the most important part of the district from an agriculture point of view.

The second tract between the Sengar and the Yamuna is locally known as the ghar. Its characteristic soil is a red and light but fertile sandy loam. The "surface." which is not quite level, lies lowest nearly midway between the two rivers. : and. unlike the pachar, the ghar is a plain of culturahle soil unbroken by usar, while in the depressions the clay is found in much smaller beds. Here and there the ground rises into hillocks of sand and bhur, but these are for the most part confined to the Bharthana tahsil.

South of the ghar lie the uplands and ravines along the brinks of the Yamuna, and these form the third natural division of the district known as the kurka or biharh This tract includes the parts of tahsil Etawah. Bharthana and Auraiya adjoining the Yamuna. If a section of the kurka were taken from the uplands to the river it would show first. a tract of cultivated land similar in character and quite equal to the soil of the ghar; secondly, a large area of wild and deep ravines covered with grass and thorny bushes, thirdly, a lowlying plain of rich soil, subjects to the floods of the Yamuna and fourthly, a fringe or strip of rich alluvial deposit along the very edge of the stream.

The fourth tract comprises the lands lying between the Yamuna and the Chambal rivers known as par, and those on the right bank of the Chambal between it sind the Kunwari. It is divided into four portions, namely Patti Kamet, taluqas Chakar Nagar and Sahson, taluqa Bareh and taluqa Sandus, and includes portions of the three tahsils of Auraiya, Bharthana and Etawah. It extends from the border of tahsil Bah in the Agra district to the point where the Yamuna, Chambal, Sindh, and Kuwanri unite. Patti Kamet comprises the western portion lying within the Etawah tahsil and extends as far as Kandhesi Ghar in Bharthana tahsil. To the east, where the space between the rivers is narrowest, the ravines join and leave no level ground between them, but towards the west the streams separate and in the centre is found a fine tableland of good loam about five to six kilometres wide.

In this tract there are at least ,two level plateaus of good light soil, one in tahsil Etawah and the other in tahsil Bharthana.

RIVER SYSTEM AND WATER RESOURCE

The rivers and streams of the district consist of the Yamuna Its two affluents, the Chambal and the Kunwari the Sengar and its tributary Sirsa , the Rind or Arind and its tributaries the Ahneya, the Puraha and the Pandu.

Yamuna The Yamuna is the main river of the district. It first touches the border of the district at the village Bawat in the north-west of tahsil Etawah. It makes, the boundary for about 24 km. between this district and Agra, and then continues in a winding course in a south-easterly direction. It. makes a remarkable curve near the village of Harauli before it joinjng the Chambal river at Bhareh. Reinforced at this point by the latter it turns abruptly to the south and then once more sweeps eastward. Thenceforward its course lies almost due east and it forms the common boundary of this district and Jalaun The total length of the Yamuna in this district is about 112 km. but its actual course is much longer owing to many bends an" loops and totals approximately 193 km. The bank on one side is usually steep and precipitous, whilst on the other it is low and open to the overflow of the river in the rains For this reason the river spreads much in times of flood, and the surface velocity being small, it covers a large area with a rich alluvial deposit in the rains. This natural tendency of the Yamuna to inundate the land along its banks is increased by the action of its tributary, the Chambal, which, rushing into it almost at right angles, throws back by its greater volume and velocity the waters of the Yamuna and acts for the time as a sort of wear which still further retards that river.

Chambal The river Chambal flows to the "south of Yamuna, It first touches the district at the village of Murong in the trans-Yamuna tract of Etawah tahsil, and for 40 km. forms the boundary of the district with the State of Madhya Pradesh. At Barecha it is for the first time flanked on either side by land belonging to this district, and for the remainder of its course of about 35 km. flows through this district. Near its confluence with the Yamuna at Bhareh it forms a large though less abrupt curve -than that river. In appearance and character the Chambal closely resembles the Yamuna and has within this district a channel of equal dimensions. It is exceedingly liable to sudden and heavy floods owing to the steep gradient of its bed before it debouches on the alluvial plain, and from the superior velocity of its stream, it discharges a greater volume of water than the Yamuna. Its water is remarkable for its crystal-clarity, axH even after the two rivers have united, the water of the Chambal may, for some distance, be distinguished from that of the Yamuna. The land is sandy and the stream is too swift to allow the deposit of fertilizing silt, consequently the alluvial patches along the Chambal are of much smaller extent than those along the Yamuna

Kunwari
This river is also the tributary of the Yamuna it forms the district boundary with the State of ,Madhya Pradesh for about 16 km. and for an equal distance flows through the district, till it unites with the Yamuna some 8 km. below the junction of that river with the Chambal. Rising in Madhya Pradesh not far from the old town of Morar, it flows north-w«s\ north-east, turns east and finally south-east, almost in a semi circle, till it is joined by the Sindh in the extreme south of tahsil Auraiya. The Sindh which joins it. and sometimes gives its name to the short length of the united stream which joins the Yamuna, differs in no way from it. Both, like the Chambal. are subject to great and sudden freshets during the rains, though they dwindle to insignificant streams in the hot season.

The vast stretch of land from the confluence of Yamuna and Chambal upto the confluence of Sindh and Yamuna locally known as Pachnada, presents an extensive view of Sylvan beauty during the rainy season and also in the winters But it turns into an arid expanse during the summers.

Sengar and the Sirsa
The Sengar enters Etawah near the village of Dhanwa in the north of Etawah tahsil. After traversing the district in a south-easterly direction, parallel to Yamuna, it passes into Kanpur district- In the upper part of its course the stream is not of much importance, its sides are low and shelving, aii.1 its banks generally culturable, but at Amritpur, sorne 6 km. north of the town of Etawah, it is joined by the Sirsa, which up to this point had shown a slight tendency to converge towards it. Then the Sengar runs in a deep bed, and the drainage from the sun Minding country tears its banks into ravines which aru only insignificant in comparison with the depressions on the banks of the Yamuna. These ravines increase in extent and wildness as the river proceeds eastward and they are unfit for cultivation The Sirsa enters into Etawah tahsil in the north-west, about 17 km. west of the Sengar. It flows in a well defined channel towards south-east and meets the Sengar river near Amritpur.

Rind or Arind
The river rises in Aligarh district and enters Etawah first at the village of Bankhera in the north-east border of tahsil Bidhuna. After runnrig along the district boundary for about 10 km. in a tortuous course. it turns sharply southwards at Sabhad. ,and meanders in a south-easterly direction through Bidhunna till it finally passes, into Kanpur. The Rind has a perennial stream, which shrinks considerably in size in the hot. weather, At the village of Lakhnu, where its course is more decidedly deflected to cast, it is joined by two tributaries known as the Ahneya and Puraha.

The Ahneya and Puraha
These take thier rise in a series of lakes, the former near Kakan and the latter near Sauj in the Mainpuri district and are little more than drainage channels for carrying off superfluous rein, water. In the hot or cold season they are normally dry but in the rains the Puraha. owing to its sinuous course, injures a considerable amount of land on either bank. The Ahneya after a course of 80 km. and the Puraha after 56 km. unite at Bahsora, within about 3 km of their confluence with the Rind. Their trend is from north –west to south east, and running in parallel channels they traverse the north-eastern corner of Etawah, the northern portion of Bhnrthana and the western part of Bidhuna tahsils.

Pandu
It is the only stream of the Etawah district which flows into the Ganga. It rises in the extreme north-east of Bidhuna tahsil in a large clay depression forming a lake lying between Sabhad and Nurpur. It flows eastwards into the Farrukhabad district.

Lakes
The general excellence of the natural drainage afforded by the rivers and their tributary streams and their watercourses over the bulk of the district is exemplified by the general rarity of lakes and marshes. The only exception to it are the northern portions of the district in tahsils Etawah, Bharthana and Bidhuna, Here the existence of clay beds in hollows has renddered conditions favourable for the collection of water in lakes, but few of these are extensive. They are situated for the most on the borders of the district especially in pargana Bidhuna. The most important of these lakes are those at Hardoi, Rahan, Parauli and Baralokpur in tahsil Eliwah, at Sarsainawar, Kunetha, Mahauri. Kundrel Sonthana and Usrahar in tahsil Bharthana. and at Dharmangadpur, Mundai, Hardoi, Baroli, Auron, Yaqubpuv, Tirhua. Dhupkhari and Manaura in tahsil Bidhuna, the last five all lying close to Farrukhabad boundary.

GEOLOGY

The District has no mineral wealth and there are no mines or stone quarries. Brick earth is available every where. Lime-stone in tho shape of kankar is found in the district both in the block and rodular forms. It is obtained principally in the neighbourhood of the Puraha and the Ahneya rivers where it lies near the surface. It is known by the name of 'Siliya' and is soft. when first dug out but hardens on exposure to the air. It is much more difficult to consolidate than rodular kankar, but makes a better and smoother road. Bichua kankar generally underlies bhw or bhuriya soil in farily large nodules with irregular projections and pierced by a number of holes. It can not be completely freed from earth unless it is broken into very small pieces but when well beaten down on roads it consolidates very well. The kankar which is found in the ravines is locally known as bihar and jharna.. Kankar is also burnt for obtaining lime. Lime is prepared in the district is of much better qualify than in many of the adjoining districts because the kankar utilised for its prepperationis precureated in a well-washed state from the ravines.

Seismology
The occurrence of earthquakes affecting region is attributed to various geological and tectonic features such as Great Himalayan Boundary fault zone, Moradabad and Lucknow faults, and the Aravalli fault zone. Etawah and its surrounding area lie in a region where no earthquake of any significance has occurred in the past. It has however experienced fringe effects of Mathura earthquake of Sept. 1, 1803, Bihar-Nepal earthruake of Jan. 15, 1934. The maximum intensity city experienced at Etawah during the Mathura shock was between IV and V of Modified Mercalli intensity scale (I not felt to XII total damage) of 1931 In the seismic zoning map of India the area has been placed in zone II which correspond to a maximum intensity of VI rnm

FLORA
The forest blocks consist mostly of ravines and some flat waste lands. The Yamuna and the Chambal ravines are very old. It appears that the ravines have been formed due to relative level of banks and their geological structure. Unfit for another use, the vast areas under ravines came under heavy grazing and reckless hacking. This subsequently accelerated the erosion and extinction of woodland, wherever it was existing. Later, for protection of the ground from erosion and further deterioration and for the creation of fuel arid fodder reserves the area was closed to grazing, and babul, sissio and neem were sown. The waste lands were previously the property of the zamindars and were generally devoid of any tree or shrub growth, They were scattered all over in small or big patches near villages or along the river banks and were grazing grounds for the cattle of the neighbouring villages. After the abolition of zamirdari the state government transferred to the forest department large tracts of land where plantation was possible.

The pioneer work for the protection of land from erosion by planting forests had been taken up as early as 1888 by Mr Fisher, the then collector of Etawah. He induced the zamindars to permit the wastelands to be managed as single unit with a view to conserve timber. It covered an area of about 2000 acres in villages of Etawah Khas. Dhumanpur. Loharana and Partabner. This forest is said to be largely responsible for saving Etawah city from the erosive action of the Yamuna. The afforestation and conservation on large scale was, however taken up rnuch later.

About 30,966 hectares of land covered with timber and other trees and shrubs is under the management of the forest. department. Of this an area of about 9,834 hectares lies in tahsil Etawah, about 10,510 hectares in tahsil Bharthana, about 6,031 hectares in tahsil Bidhuna and about 7,795 hectares in tahsil Auraiya. The forest area in the district under the control of the Gaon Sabhas is about 869 hectares of which 164 hectares is covered with timber trees and the remaining with other species of trees and shrubs. Of the timber forest tahsil Etawah contains 135 hectares, tahsil Bidhuna 2 hectares and tahsil Auraiya 27 hectares. The forest area under other trees and shrubs extends over 90 hec-tares in tahsil Etawah, 575 hectares in tahsil Bharthana, 10 hectares in tahsil Bidhuna and 30 hectares in tahsil Auraiya.

The trees found in the district are of dhak (Butea monos-perma), aonla (Emblica officinalis), arjan (Terminalia arjuna), ashok (Polyalthia longifoliq.), asna (Terminalia dlata), bahera (Terminalia beliirica), bargad (Ficus bengalensis), barhal (Artocar-pus' lakoocha), bel (Aegle marmelos), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus tere-ticornis), gidar (Ficus glomcrata), riul mohor (Delonix regia), jamun (Suzygium cumini), kaitha (Feronia limcnia). kathal (Arto-carpus heterophyllus), khair (acacia intiiea), mahua (Madhuka indica), litcni (Naphelium litchi), neem (Azcdirachta indica), pipal (Ficus reiiffiosu), sayon (Tectona grandis), silver oak (Grevilea robusta), kala siris (Albizia lebbek), saffd siris (Albizia lebbek) and shisham (Dalbergia sissoo). Grasses- like dub (Cynedon dac-tylon), baib (Erilaliopis bineta), kans (Saccharum spontmeum) and spear grass are also found in the district.

The forest department has taken up afforestation and ravine reclamation works to check the soil erosion This work was started in 1953-54 and a total area covered by the afforestation and ravine reclamation project upto 1974..75 was 13,755 hectares. The chief trees which have been planted arc shisham, babul, jamun, neem, imli and papal

FAUNA
There is a variety of animal and bird life with in these forests, although the animals and birds are not found in any great number due to lack of cover and sparseness of vegetation. The most commonly met animal is the nilgai or the blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus). The other animals found in the district are panther (Panthera pardus), Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis) sambhsir (Gervus un'icolor), wild bear (Sus porcinus), wolf tcanis lupus), hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), hare (Lepus ruficandaius), porcupine (Hystrix indica), jungle cat (Felis chaus), jackal (Canis aureus). mongoose (Harpestes edwardsi), monkey (Innus rhesus) and squirrel (Funambulus pennauti). Due to indiscriminate killing chinkara, black buck and spotted deer have now become extinct.

Birds
A variety of birds are found in the district. The most common among the game birds is the partridge (Francolines pondicerianus) which occurs everywhere and is locally known as titar. Other types of partridge, such as kala titar or black partridge (Francolines vulgaris), gray parridge (Francolines Pondicerianus are found near the forests. Among the quails the most common are the bater (Coturnix communis) and the lava 'Perdicula asiatica) which are usually found in the bushes. Other birds found in the district are kabutar or pigeon (columbia livia), fakhta or dove (streptopelia decaocte), parkia or turtle dove (Streptopelia chinensis), harial (Streptopelia senegalensis), peacock (Pavo cristatus), snipe or chaha (Capella gallinago), lal sir (Netta ruflna), white-eyed pochard or khanjan (Aythya rufa), nil sir (Anas platy rhyncho*', seekhpar (Anas acuta), jal murgi (Amaurornis phoeonicums),

Fish
Fish are found in the rivers, lakes and ponds of the district, the common species being rohu (Labeo rohua), karonch (Labeo calbasu), khursa (Labeo gonius), nain (Cirrhina mrigala). catla (Catla catla), bam (Mastacenbelus armatus), and silond (Silondia silondia).

Reptiles
Snakes are common in the district, especially in the rural area the chief being the Cobra (Nnja naja), Kara.it (Bun-grus caeruleus) and water snake (Natrix piscator). The gharial (Gavivlis gangeticus) and magar (Crocodilus paiustris) are found in the Yamuna. The other reptiles are the chameleon (girgit), the goh and the Chipkali (lizaid).

Game Laws
The game laws applicable to the district were governed by the Wild Birds and Animals Protection (U.P. Amendment) Act, 1934. It has been replaced by the wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 which made game laws more stringent with a view to conserving wild life and preventing the extinction of certain species. The wolf, crocodile, gharial and peafowl have been declared protected species. The punishment for infringement of the laws has been made more deterrent.

CLIMATE

The climate of this district is characterised by a hot dry Summer and a cool winter. The year may be divided into the following seasonal cycles : the cold season from about the middle of November toFebruary, followed by the hot season from March to about the middle of June. The period whichfollows and lasts till about the end of September constitutes the south-west monsoon or the transition period.

Rainfall
Records of rainfall in the district are available from four stations for about a century. The details of the rain fall at these stations and for the district as a whole are given in Table at the end of the chapter.

The average annual rainfall in the district is 752.4 mm. The rainfall varies from 712.9 mm. at Bharthana to 801.- mm. at Bidhuna. About 89 per cent of the annual normal rainfall in the district is received during the south-west monsoon months from June to September, August being the rainiest month. The variation in the annual rainfall from year to year is appreciable. In the 50 year period, 1901 to 1950, the highest annual rainfall amounting to 163 per cent of the normal occurred in 1949. The lowest annual rainfall which was only 36 per cent of the normal occurred in 1918. During this 50 year period the annual rainfall in the district was less than 80 per cent of the normal in 11 years none of them being consecutive. However, considering the rainfall at individual stations two consecutive years of rainfall less than 80 per cent of the nominal occurred twice at Bharthana and once at Bidhuna and Auraiya. The heaviest rainfall in 24 hours recorded at any station in the district was 281.9 mm. at Etawah on August 21, 1874. A statement, regarding the frequency of the annual rainfall in the district is given below for the period 1901—50.

The above statement shows that the annual rainfall in the district was between 500 and 1000 mm. in 40 years out of 50. On an average there are 40 rainy days (i.e., days with rainfall of 2.5 mm. or more) in a year in the district.

Temperature

There is no meteorological observatory in the district. The description which follows is based on the records of the observatories in neighbouring districts where similar climatic conditions prevail. After February there is a steady increase of temperature. May is generally the hottest, month with the mean daily maximum temperature at about 42°C and the mean daily minimum at about 26° C. The nights are slightly warmer in June than in May. The heat in summer is intense and the hot, dry and dust-laden westerly winds which are common in the hot season make the weather severely trying. In this season maximum temperatures on individual days sometimes reach 46°C or over. Afternoon thundershowers which occur on some days bring welcome though temporary relief. With the onset of the south-west monsoon over the district by about the third week of June there is appreciable drop in the day temperature and the weather becomes more- bearable. But the nights still continue to be as warm 0,3 in the latter part of the summer. With the withdrawal of the monsoon by about the end of September there is a slight increase in the day temperature. But there is a rapid drop in the night temperature after the withdrawal of the monsoon. After November both day and night temperatures decrease rapidly till January, which is usually the coldest month with the mean daily maximum temperature at about 23°C and the. mean daily minimum at about 8° C. During the cold season the district is affected by cold waves in the wake of eastward moving western disturbances, when minimum temperature occasionally goes clown to about a degree or so below the freezing point of water when frosts descend-

Humidity

During the monsoon season the relative humidity i.7 generally high being over 70 per cent. Thereafter the humidities decrease arid by summer which is the driest part of the year the relative humidities in the afternoons become less than 30 per cent.

Cloudiness

During the monsoon season and for brief spells of a day or two during the cold season when the district is affected by passing western disturbances, skies are generally heavily clouded or overcast. In the rest of the year mostly clear or lightly clouded conditions prevail.

Winds

Winds are generally light and are mostly from directions between south-west and .north-west. In May and the south-west monsoon season winds on many days blow also from directions between north-east an.d south-east.

During the monsoon season depressions originating in the Bay of Bengal which move across the central parts of the country scruetimeb affect the weather over the district Causing widespread heavy rains and gusty winds in the district. In the cold season western disturbances affect the weather over the district causing a few thunder-storms. Dust-storms occur occasionally during the hot esason. Thunder-storms occur throughout the year, the highest incidence being the monsoon season. Fog occurs- during the cold season on a few days, maximum probability of occur-rance being in January-

(a) Normal rainfall in mm.
(b) Average No. of rainy ( days with rain of 2.5 mm. or more )
      Based on all average data upto 1970